Category Archives: America 250

The Treaty of Paris: Winning the Peace That Created a Nation

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Part of the ByLanderSea America 250: Road to Revolution Series

The War Was Won—But Peace Had Yet to Be Secured

The surrender of British General Charles Cornwallis at Yorktown on October 19, 1781, marked the decisive military victory of the American Revolution. For many, the war seemed over.

Surrender of Cornwallis By John Trumbull
– http://www.aoc.gov/cc/photo-gallery/ptgs_rotunda.cfm, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1379717

It wasn’t.

Although the guns had fallen silent in Virginia, Great Britain had not yet recognized the independence of its former colonies. British troops still occupied New York City, Charleston, and Savannah, and no treaty had been signed. Winning the war on the battlefield was only the beginning. Now came the equally challenging task of winning the peace.

For nearly two years, diplomats worked across the Atlantic to transform military victory into an internationally recognized nation. (I think most of us forget this piece of history.)

Diplomacy in Paris

Peace negotiations began in Paris in the spring of 1782. Representing the United States were four remarkable men: Benjamin Franklin, already admired throughout France for his scientific achievements and diplomatic skill; John Adams of Massachusetts; John Jay of New York; and later Henry Laurens of South Carolina.

Benjamin West, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons Unfinished Treaty of Paris: It shows, from left, John Jay, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Henry Laurens, and William Temple Franklin; the British refused to pose.

Franklin had spent years cultivating France’s friendship, securing the financial aid, military assistance, and naval support that proved essential to victory at Yorktown. Now he faced an equally difficult assignment—helping negotiate favorable terms for the new nation.

The negotiations were far from simple. Although France had been America’s indispensable ally during the war, French interests did not always align perfectly with those of the United States. John Jay became convinced the Americans would secure better terms by negotiating directly with Britain. John Adams agreed. Franklin, recognizing the importance of maintaining unity among the American commissioners, eventually supported the decision. The negotiations were delicate, sometimes tense, but ultimately successful.

A Remarkably Favorable Peace

On September 3, 1783, representatives of the United States and Great Britain signed the Treaty of Paris. Its terms exceeded nearly everyone’s expectations.

Great Britain formally recognized the independence of the United States. The new nation gained territory stretching from the Atlantic Ocean west to the Mississippi River and from Canada south to Spanish Florida. Americans retained valuable fishing rights off Newfoundland and agreed that pre-war debts would be honored. The treaty also recommended restitution for Loyalists whose property had been confiscated during the war, although enforcement varied from state to state.

Historians have often described the agreement as one of the most favorable peace treaties ever granted to a victorious former colony. The United States emerged not only independent but with abundant land and extraordinary opportunities for growth.

Yorktown had won the war. Paris secured the peace.

Following the Story Today

One of the pleasures of writing this Road to Revolution series has been visiting many of the places where history unfolded. You can see the actual document at the National Archives in Washington, D.C.

Although the treaty bears the name “Treaty of Paris,” surprisingly little marks the exact site where negotiations took place. The American commissioners met at the Hôtel d’York on Rue Jacob, where the building still stands as a private residence. During my upcoming visit to Paris, I hope to stand outside that historic address and imagine Franklin, Adams, and Jay negotiating the future of a new nation.

Peacefield in Quincy, Massachusetts, as I saw it in July 2025. Photo ©Bylandersea

Last summer, I visited the Adams National Historical Park in Quincy, Massachusetts, where John and Abigail Adams eventually retired after decades of public service. Their beloved home, Peacefield, reflected the quieter life Adams longed for after years spent helping build a nation through both war and diplomacy. Walking through its rooms, it was easy to forget that this peaceful gentleman had once helped negotiate one of the most significant treaties in American history.

The library at Peacefield, the historic home of John Adams and his family in Quincy, Massachusetts, was built in 1870 (after his death) at the request of his son, Charles Francis Adams. The Stone Library houses thousands of volumes collected by generations of the Adams family—a remarkable reflection of one of America’s most influential political and intellectual dynasties.

History has a way of connecting places separated by hundreds of miles. I love that.

Did You Know?

Although the Treaty of Paris was signed on September 3, 1783, British troops did not evacuate New York City until November 25, 1783. Known today as Evacuation Day, the British departure marked the final withdrawal of British forces from the United States.

Looking Ahead

The Treaty of Paris formally ended the Revolutionary War and secured America’s independence. Yet one final chapter remained before the Revolution truly came to a close.

George Washington had led the Continental Army through eight long years of war. Like John Adams, he desired nothing more than to return home and resume the quiet life he had left behind. Many expected him to remain at the head of the army—or even seize political power. Instead, he performed an act that astonished the world.

He voluntarily resigned his commission, surrendered his military authority to Congress, and returned to Mount Vernon. His greatest victory did not come on the battlefield. It would come in walking away from power.

Mount Vernon, the home of George and Martha Washington in Alexandria, Virginia. Photo ©Bylandersea

In my next post,  I will take you on a tour of George and Martha Washington’s home, Mount Vernon in Alexandria, Virginia. It holds many memories as I grew up near there and have visited many times. 

Yorktown: The Victory That Secured American Independence

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In the summer of 1781, the Revolutionary War had dragged on for more than six years.

The British still held New York City. Their army remained one of the most powerful fighting forces in the world. Yet events set in motion during the Southern Campaign were about to converge on a small Virginia tobacco port called Yorktown.

As discussed in my previous article, British General Charles Cornwallis entered Virginia after a frustrating campaign in the Carolinas. Although he had won several tactical victories, British defeats at Kings Mountain and Cowpens, combined with General Nathanael Greene’s relentless strategy of attrition, steadily weakened Britain’s hold on the South.

Cornwallis hoped Virginia would provide a secure base for future operations. Instead, Yorktown became a trap.

A French Fleet Changes Everything

One of the greatest “what if” moments in American history occurred at sea.

In August 1781, a French fleet commanded by Admiral François Joseph Paul de Grasse sailed into the Chesapeake Bay. His arrival transformed the strategic situation.

The British navy, long considered invincible, attempted to regain control of the bay. The resulting Battle of the Chesapeake proved decisive. The French prevented British ships from reaching Yorktown and cut off Cornwallis’s most reliable escape route.

For the first time during the war, British forces found themselves vulnerable and isolated.

Seige of Yorktown Map, from Mount Vernon website.

Washington Sees His Opportunity

General George Washington had spent years watching British forces occupy New York City. Although he had hoped to recapture the location, circumstances rarely favored such an attack.

When news arrived that de Grasse would support operations in Virginia, Washington quickly changed plans.

Together with French General Jean-Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur, Comte de Rochambeau, Washington secretly moved thousands of American and French troops south. The march covered more than 400 miles and remains one of the most impressive military maneuvers of the war.

The British commander in New York did not fully realize Washington’s intentions until it was too late.

By late September, allied forces were converging on Yorktown.

The Siege Begins

Unlike many famous Revolutionary War battles, Yorktown was NOT decided in a single dramatic afternoon.

Instead, it became a carefully executed siege.

American and French troops surrounded the town while the French fleet blocked escape by sea. Cornwallis’s army found itself trapped between land and water.

Engineers dug trenches closer and closer to British defenses. Artillery batteries bombarded the town day and night. The thunder of cannon fire echoed across the Virginia countryside.

Yorktown Redoubt 10

As the siege tightened, British options dwindled.

Two key British defensive positions, Redoubts 9 and 10, became critical obstacles. In one of the most celebrated actions of the war, American troops led by Alexander Hamilton stormed Redoubt 10 with fixed bayonets during a nighttime assault. French forces simultaneously captured Redoubt 9.

The fall of the redoubts brought allied artillery within range of the British interior defenses and accelerated the collapse of Cornwallis’s position.

Canon at Yorktown Battlefield today. Photo ©Bylandersea

The Surrender

On October 19, 1781, Cornwallis surrendered.

Nearly 8,000 British soldiers laid down their arms.

The Surrender of Lord Cornwallis
The Surrender of Lord Cornwallis (at Yorktown, Virginia, on October 19, 1781), oil on canvas by John Trumbull, completed in 1820; in the U.S. Capitol Rotunda, Washington, D.C. The painting captures the moment when major fighting during the American Revolution ended and the colonies achieved independence.

Legend holds that Cornwallis claimed illness and sent a subordinate to represent him at the surrender ceremony. Whether motivated by pride or genuine sickness, the gesture reflected the magnitude of Britain’s defeat.

The war did not officially end until the Treaty of Paris was signed in 1783, but Yorktown effectively ended major combat operations in North America.

Parliament soon recognized that continuing the war would be costly and increasingly unpopular. The American Revolution had been won.

Why Yorktown Matters

As America commemorates its 250th anniversary, Yorktown offers more than a history lesson. It is a place to reflect on the perseverance, sacrifice, and international cooperation that made independence possible. The victory achieved here on October 19, 1781, did not end the Revolutionary War overnight, but it marked the decisive turning point that led to the birth of the United States.

After following the Road to Revolution from Lexington and Concord through the battles of New England, the Middle Colonies, and the Carolinas, there is no more fitting place to conclude the journey than Yorktown—where the dream of independence became a reality.

Yorktown Travel Guide

Start your visit at the multi-media American Revolution Museum of Yorktown. Photo ©Bylandersea

Few places bring the story of American independence to life more vividly than Yorktown.

The battlefield, riverfront village, and museums bring the final chapter of the Revolution vividly to life, while the quiet landscape encourages reflection on the extraordinary events that unfolded here in October 1781.

Although I first visited the former Yorktown Victory Center years ago, the experience today is dramatically different. The American Revolution Museum at Yorktown, which opened in 2017, brings the story of the Revolution to life through immersive exhibits, films, and engaging living- history experiences. It is wonderful for children, as well.

An interactive exhibit called The Liberty Tree in the American Revolution Museum at Yorktown. Photo ©Bylandersea

Stepping into history at the American Revolution Museum at Yorktown’s living-history area. Trying on the uniform of an eighteenth-century soldier offered a small glimpse into the lives of those who fought for independence in 1781.
Activities at the Encampment at the American Revolution Museum at Yorktown Photos ©Bylandersea

Afterward, continue to the  Colonial National Historical Park for the Yorktown Battlefield Visitor Center and follow the self-guided battlefield driving tour. Stop at the siege lines, Surrender Field, the Moore House where the surrender terms were negotiated, and the monuments commemorating the American and French victory. The visitor center and interpretive exhibits provide additional context for one of the most significant military campaigns in American history.

The Yorktown Victory Monument commemorates the decisive Allied victory that secured American independence. Authorized by the Continental Congress in 1781, the monument was not completed until 1884 and today stands overlooking the York River where history changed forever.

Allow time to stroll Historic Yorktown’s charming waterfront, browse its small museums and shops, and enjoy views of the York River that remind visitors why this peninsula became the setting for a world-changing victory. While you are in this area, known as the Virginia Historic Triangle, be sure to visit Colonial Williamsburg (my favorite) and Jamestown.  

Yorktown’s Waterfront offers shops and restaurants. Photo ©Bylandersea

Did You Know?

Legend says the British army that surrendered at Yorktown marched out to the tune of “The World Turned Upside Down.” While historians still debate whether that tune was actually played, the phrase has become a lasting symbol of how the Revolutionary War transformed the world.

The stories of the Treaty of Paris and Washington’s resignation will follow soon.

The Road to Yorktown: How the Southern Campaign Won the Revolution

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When Americans think of the Revolutionary War, they often picture Lexington and Concord, Valley Forge, or Washington crossing the Delaware, (all stories I have covered earlier in this series). Yet the road to independence did not end in New England. It ended hundreds of miles to the south at Yorktown, Virginia.

The final victory at Yorktown in October 1781 was not the result of a single battle. Instead, it was the culmination of a long and grueling Southern Campaign that slowly wore down British forces and changed the course of the war.

By 1778, Britain had shifted its focus to the southern colonies. British leaders believed they would find large numbers of Loyalists willing to support the Crown in Georgia and the Carolinas. Capturing the South, they hoped, would isolate the rebellious northern colonies and restore royal control.

Initially, the strategy seemed successful.

The British captured Savannah in 1778 and Charleston in 1780. Charleston’s surrender was one of the worst American defeats of the war. Thousands of Patriot soldiers were taken prisoner, and British General Charles Cornwallis appeared poised to restore British authority throughout the South. Then the tide began to turn.

Kings Mountain: The First Blow

In October 1780, Patriot militia from the frontier settlements gathered at what is now known as the Overmountain Victory National Historic Trail. These rugged backcountry fighters crossed the Appalachian Mountains and pursued Loyalist forces under Major Patrick Ferguson.

At Kings Mountain, on the border of North and South Carolina, the Patriots surrounded Ferguson’s force and won a decisive victory. Ferguson was killed, and more than 1,000 Loyalists were captured, killed, or wounded.

Thomas Jefferson later called Kings Mountain “the turn of the tide of success.” The victory shattered British hopes of raising large numbers of Loyalist supporters in the Carolina backcountry.

Cowpens: A Tactical Masterpiece

Three months later, another Patriot victory further weakened British control.

At Cowpens, South Carolina, General Daniel Morgan devised one of the most brilliant battle plans of the Revolution. He arranged his militia and Continental troops in successive lines, carefully anticipating how the British would attack.

The plan worked perfectly. British commander Banastre Tarleton’s forces were routed. More than 800 British soldiers were killed, wounded, or captured.

Cowpens not only damaged British military strength but also boosted Patriot morale throughout the South.

The Race to the Dan

General Nathanael Greene

After Cowpens, General Nathanael Greene faced a difficult challenge. His army was smaller and less experienced than Cornwallis’s veteran troops. Rather than risk destruction in a major battle, Greene chose a strategy of movement and endurance.

For weeks, Patriot forces retreated across North Carolina while Cornwallis pursued them. The campaign became known as the Race to the Dan.

Greene successfully crossed Virginia’s Dan River and escaped. Cornwallis had failed to destroy the American army. Greene then turned and marched south again.

Guilford Courthouse: A Costly Victory

In March 1781, Greene confronted Cornwallis at Guilford Courthouse in present-day Greensboro, North Carolina. The British won the battle and held the field at day’s end. On paper, it appeared to be a British victory.

But the cost was enormous.More than a quarter of Cornwallis’s army became casualties. The British could not easily replace experienced soldiers operating far from their bases.

Greene’s army remained intact. The battle demonstrated a critical truth: Cornwallis could win battles and still lose the campaign.

The Long Fight for the South

Photo from Journal of the American revolution

Greene continued to pressure British forces throughout the Carolinas.

At Hobkirk’s Hill, Ninety Six, and Eutaw Springs, Patriot troops repeatedly challenged British positions. Although Greene did not win every engagement, he forced the British to expend men, supplies, and energy simply to hold territory.

British forces gradually abandoned much of the interior South and retreated toward coastal strongholds.

The Southern Campaign became a war of attrition.Greene later summarized his strategy:

“We fight, get beat, rise, and fight again.”

His persistence slowly achieved what dramatic victories alone could not.

Cornwallis Moves North

Unable to secure the Carolinas, Cornwallis shifted his attention to Virginia.

The decision marked a turning point in the war. British forces had captured major southern cities and won several battles, yet they had failed to crush the Patriot cause. Nathanael Greene’s relentless campaign had steadily weakened British control of the countryside and forced Cornwallis to seek a new strategy.

By the summer of 1781, the war’s center of gravity was moving north.

Cornwallis marched into Virginia, believing he could establish a secure base and continue British operations. Instead, he was heading toward a place that would become synonymous with the end of the Revolutionary War.

The Southern Campaign had accomplished its purpose. Through persistence, sacrifice, and a series of hard-fought victories, Patriot forces had worn down one of Britain’s finest armies and pushed the war toward its final chapter.

The road to Yorktown had begun.

Next in the America 250 series: Yorktown – The Victory That Won Independence.

Hikers may enjoy the Overmountain Victory Trail: Stretching 330-miles through four states (Virginia, Tennessee, North and South Carolina) the Overmountain Victory National Historic Trail traces the route used by Patriot militia during the pivotal Kings Mountain campaign of 1780. Follow their campaign by utilizing a Commemorative Motor Route along existing state highways marked with the distinctive trail logo, or 80+ miles of walkable trail.